There are some excellent replies in here. I'll try to summarize them a bit and add on a few more.

First the summary.

• /u/Jeflakra's comment deals with source code management. This is perhaps the single most important thing outside the programming language related to programming.
• /u/whisky_cat's comment is a mixed bag you're most likely to hear programmers use around the coffee machine (mostly though these are tools of the trade).
• /u/Xenoprimate's comment touches upon a bit more abstract concept. This is vital when thinking about a problem, and how and what solution fits best. Remember though that efficiency has two dimensions: time and space and the Big-O analysis can be, and regularly are, applied to both speed and memory usage.
• /u/dast's comment is about types of programming languages.

Other interesting jargon (programming language agnostic):

• Buffer overflow -- accessing more memory than you are legally entitled to
• Infinite loop -- the very definition of insanity, to keep on doing the same thing
• Off-by-one -- typically, a special case of buffer overflow. Accessing just one more element than you can.
• Byte -- minimum addressable unit of memory. Can be 3. 9, 11 or 8 bits (most frequent). The others did exist though.
• Static and dynamic analysis -- code performance, security checks
• Secure coding -- making sure you're not leaving food for the hackers out there
• Tail recursion -- special case of recursion, typically optimized away by compilers. Can be inefficient otherwise.
• Compiler -- the code that turns programs to binaries (simplistic definition)
• Optimization -- time, space or both. Can be at function level, or at the whole program level.
• String manipulation -- dealing with strings. Can be tricky, and wasteful if not done right.

E*: Formatting

Writing a basic infix to postfix converter, or a small calculator. A lot of string manipulation, function modularity, file I/O, basic dictionary/array data structures.

I find the BridgeHands' explanations neat as well. Short, precise and practical. Equations and reader attention are often inversely correlated (causation not implied :P)

I can't believe no one has mentioned clc-wiki, especially, the K&R solutions part. It's a good place to go to too. What you learn to appreciate much later, is how careful K&R is with the standard compliance (the post-ANSI book) and how it instills a discipline against UB.